Book Paper

A book paper (or publishing paper) is a paper which is designed exclusively for the publication of printed books. Traditionally, book papers are off white or low white papers (easier to read), are dense to minimise the show through of text from one side of the page to the other and are (generally) made to tighter caliper or thickness specifications, particularly for case bound books. Typically, books papers are light weight papers 60–90g/m² and often particular by their caliper/substance ratios (volume basis). For example, a bulky 80g/m² paper may possibly have a caliper of 120 microns (0.12mm) which would be Volume 15 (120×10/80) where as a low bulk 80g/m² may have a caliper of 88 microns, giving a volume 11. This volume basis then allows the calculation of a books PPI (printed pages per inch) which is an essential factor for the design of book jackets and the binding of the finished book.

Generally, higher bulk papers are more obscure and rougher than lower bulk papers, although lower bulk papers, with their smoother outside, will be capable of reproducing finer printed images.

Line Printers

Line printers, as the name implies, print an whole line of text at a time. Three principal designs are existed. In drum printers, a drum carries the whole character set of the printer repeated in each column that is to be printed. In chain printers (also called as train printers), the character set is arranged multiple times around a chain that travels horizontally past the print line. In either case, to print a line, specifically timed hammers strike against the back of the paper at the exact moment that the correct character to be printed is passing in front of the paper. The paper presses forward touching a ribbon which then presses against the character form and the impression of the character form is printed onto the paper.

Comb printers characterize the third major design. These printers were a hybrid of dot matrix printing and line printing. In these printers, a comb of hammers printed a part of a row of pixels at one time (for example, every eighth pixel). By shifting the comb back and forth slightly, the complete pixel row could be printed (continuing the example, in just eight cycles). The paper then highly developed and the next pixel row was printed. Because far less motion was involved than in a conservative dot matrix printer, these printers were very fast compared to dot matrix printers and were competitive in speed with formed-character line printers while also being able to print dot-matrix graphics.

Line printers were the fastest of all impact printers and were used for largeness printing in large computer centres. They were almost never used with personal computers and have now been replaced by high-speed laser printers.

The heritage of line printers lives on in many computer operating systems, which use the abbreviations "lp", "lpr", or "LPT" to refer to printers.

Modern Print Technology

Toner-Based Printers

Toner-based printers work using the Xerographic standard that is at work in most photocopiers: by adhering toner to a light-sensitive print drum, then using static electricity to transfer the toner to the printing medium to which it is fused with heat and pressure.

The most regular type of toner-based printer is the laser printer, which uses precision lasers to cause adherence. Laser printers are known for high quality prints, good print speed, and a low (Black and White) cost-per-copy; they are the most general printer for many general-purpose office applications. They are far less frequently used as consumer printers due to a high initial cost.

Laser printers are existing in both color and monochrome varieties.

Another toner based printer is the LED printer which uses an array of LEDs as an alternative of a laser to cause toner adhesion to the print drum.

Recent research has also indicated that Laser printers produce potentially dangerous ultrafine particles, possibly causing health problems associated with respiration. The degree of particle emissions varies with age, model and design of each printer but is commonly proportional to the amount of toner required. Furthermore, a well ventilated workspace would allow such ultrafine particles to disperse thus reducing the health side effects.

System-of-Systems Engineering (SoSE)

System-of-Systems Engineering (SoSE) is a set of developing processes and methods for manipulative and implementing solutions to System-of-Systems problems. SoSE is moderately new term being used in Department of Defense applications, but is increasingly being applied to non-military/security related problems (e.g., transportation, healthcare, Internet, search and rescue, space exploration). SoSE is more than systems engineering of multifaceted systems because design for System-of-Systems problems is performed under some level of uncertainty in the requirements and the constituent systems, and it involves considerations in multiple levels and domains (as per Ref. 2 and 3). Whereas SE focuses on building the system right, SoSE focuses on choosing the right system(s) to gratify the requirements.